GK BULLETIN

Indian History- Ancient India-Pre-Historic period

The period of history which does not have any records is known as pre-historic. The period in human development which has written records is known as history. The main activity/profession of humans in pre-stone age was hunting. Hemo sapiens appeared about 30,000 to 40,000 years ago. Fire was discovered in the Paleolithic age and the wheel was invented in the Neolithic age. Permanent settlement of human started in the Neolithic age and the first animal to be domesticated was the dog. Bronze was the first metal to be discovered by the human and the first tool to be made from it was the axe (discovered at Attirampakkam) Agriculture was developed in the Neolithic age. The earliest stone structure in India was Mohenjo Daro which means ‘mound of the dead. Elaborate city/ town-planning. It followed the Grid system. Wheat and barley were the main crops. Evidences of rice are found only at Lothal and Rangpur in Gujarat. Dates, mustard, sesamum were also known to these people. They had extensive inland and foreign trades; foreign trade with Mesopotamia, Bahrain etc. The earliest stone structure in India was Mohenjo Daro which means ‘mound’ of the dead.
Indian History-Ancient India: Indus Valley Civilization (2500 BC-1750 BC)

Harappa was the first site to be discovered. So it was named as Harappan Civilization. Its date has been established to be between 2500 BC to 1750 BC, by C_14 Dating. This civilization belongs to the proto-historic Period (chalcolithic, a Bronze Age).The civilization was spread over Sind Baluchistan, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, western U.P and Northern Maharashtra. The capital cities of the civilization were Harappa and Mohenjodaro. Agricultural products, cotton goods, pottery, beads, couch shell, ivory, cotton, etc. were exported. They were the first to produce cotton in the world. These people imported gold and silver from Afghanistan, Persia, and south India. Copper came from Rajasthan and Baluchistan whereas tin came from Afghanistan and Bihar. The civilization was primarily urban. Mother Goddess (Matre Devi or Shakti) figures are the most commonly found. There was prevalence of Yoni worship. The chief deity was Pashupati (Proto-Shiva).The origin of ‘Swastika’ can be traced back to this civilization.
Rig-Vedic/Early Vedic Period (1500 Bc-1000 BC): Aryans migrated to India in several ways between 2500 BC-15 BC. They entered India probably through the Khyber Pass (in Hindukush Mountains around 1500 BC. The only source of knowledge about this period is the Rig Veda. Sapta Sindhu mean the land of seven rivers. It comprises Sindhu and five of its tributaries-Vitasta, Asikani, Vipas, and Parushni and Sutudri along with Saraswati. The Kula (the family was the basis of both social and political organizations. There were various types of meetings such as the Vidhata or ‘Sabha’. Gana was the non-monarchical assembly that is a parallel tomonarchicall assemblies of that period headed by Jyestha. The Sabha also acted as a court of justice. This society was divided into four castes namely Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. The classification of the society was based on the professions or the vocations. There were nearly 33 gods. They were classified into terrestrial (prithvi sthana), aerial or intermediate (antariksh asthana) and celestial dusthana) gods.
a. Terrestrial gods were Prithvi, Agni, Soma, brihaspati and the rivers.
b. Aerial gods were Indra, Rudra, Vayu-Vata and Parjanya.
c. Celestial gods were Daus, surya (in five forms: Surya, Savitri, Mitra, Pushan and Vishnu), Varun, Aditi, Usha and Asvin.
The early Vedic society was pastoral, cattle rearing being the dominant occupational activity. A pastoral society depended more on its animal wealth than agricultural produce. The chief or raja was called the gopati one who protected cows. Stone tools like axes mentioned in the Rig-Veda were used by them.
Later Vedic Period (1000 BC-6000 BC): in later Vedic period agriculture emerged as a dominant economic factor and there was a decline in the significance of cattle rearing. This age is also called as the Epic age because the two great epics the Ramayana and the Mahabharata were written during this period. The Aryans during this period moved to the Gangetic valley. Their settlements covered virtually the whole of Northern India (Aryavarta). During this period there were three board divisions of India, viz. Aryavarta (Northern India), Madhya Desa (central India) and Dakshinapatha (south India). Family continued to be the basic unit of society. The father was the head of the family. Joint family system was quite common. Varna or caste system developed during the later Vedic period. The fourfold caste system namely, Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras came into existence. The life of an individual was divided into four stages or Ashramas. They were Brahmacharya or student life, Grihastha or life of a father and husband, Vanaprastha or life as a hermit and finally Samyasa or total renunciation of the world. This system was formed to attain 4 Purusharthas-Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha. Women were not allowed to participate in public affairs. They could not own property. Child marriage was not prevented and widow remarriage was not allowed. Yajnavalkya-Gargi dialogue (Brihadaranyaka Upanishad) indicates that some women like Gargi and Maitreyi were educated. Rudra or Shiva, Vishnu or Narayan and Brahma or Prajapati became the most respected names in Godliness. Prajapati, the Creator or Brahma occupied the supreme position in the religion. Durga, Kali and Parvati were also worshipped.  The Aryans started worshipping certain objects as symbols of divinity. Idol worship also began in this period. Rituals became more complex.
The Rig-Veda: the Rig-Veda (collection of lyrics is the oldest Vedic text and contains 1028 hymns, divided into ten mandals. Mandala 1 comprises 191 hymns addressed to Agni and Indra. Agni is the first word of the Rig-Veda. Mandala 3 comprises 62 hymns, mainly addressed to Agni, Indra and the vishvedevas. It contains the famous Gayatri Mantra which has great importance in Hinduism. Mandala 9 comprises hymns entirely devoted to Soma, the cleansing of the scared portion of the Vedic religion. Mandala 10 comprises additional 191 hymns, addressed to Agni, Indra and various other deities. It contains the Purushasukta which has great significance in Hindu social tradition. It explains the four Varna’s- Brahman, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. They were born from the mouth, arms, thighs, and geed of the creator Brahma. The person who recited these hymns was known as a Hotri.
The Yojurveda: The Yojurveda (book of sacrificial prayers) deals with the procedure for the performance of sacrifices. It is divided into two parts-Krishna Yojurveda and Shukla Yojurveda. The person who recited these hymns was known as Adhvaryus. This Veda is written in both verse and prose.
The Samaveda: The Samaveda (book of chants) consists of verses directly taken from the Rig-Veda. It contains 1549 hymns. Udatgiri were the first to recite this Veda. Samaveda is also called the fountainhead of Indian music.
Atharvaveda: Atharvaveda (book of magical formulae) contains charms and spells to ward off evils and diseases. For a very long time the Atharvaveda was not considered a Veda. It is the fourth and last Veda.